This assignment was conducted by Sooyeun Kim, Sujin Kim and Youngran Song as a group project. The target learners are elementary school students and especially it is focused on reading and the related designing curriculum.
Citation 1:
Armbruster B. B., Lehr, F., Osborn, J. (2003). Put reading first: the research building blocks for teaching children to read. Jessup, MD: National Institute for Literacy.
Summary:
This paper was published by the Partnership for Reading. It is a collaborative effort of the National Institute for Literacy, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the U.S. Department of Education, and the U.S. Department of Health and Services. This scientific reading research was studied to be available for educators, parents, policy-makers, and others with an interest in helping all people learn to read well.
This paper gives a guidance to teachers how to teach children the reading successfully. It describes the findings of the National Reading Panel Report and provides analysis and discussion in five areas of reading instructions: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension covering from kindergarten to the grade three.
Phonemic awareness instruction. It shows various example activities to build phonemic awareness. Identify and categorize phonemes, blend phonemes to form words, segment words into phonemes, delete or add phonemesto form new words, and substitute phonemes to make new words. Phonemic awareness is the understanding that the sounds of spoken language work together to make words. This paper suggests various activities in blending and segmenting words.
Phonics instruction. Along with phonics instruction, young children should be solidifying their knowledge of the alphabet, engaging in phomenic awareness activities, and listening to stories and informational texts read aloud to them. They also should be reading text (both loudly and silently), writing letters, words, messages, and stories. This paper suggests to use practice materials such as short books and use in practicing writing and workbooks.
Fluency instruction. Reading to children is not the only benefit of fluency but also increase their knowledge of the world, their vocabulary, their familiarity with written language, and their interest in reading. Through reading aloud, children also can learn listening and speaking. This paper suggests the activity of perform a play to teach fluency.
Vocabulary instruction. Vocabulary is very important. It describes how to teach vocabulary indirectly and directly by illustrate examples of classroom instructions.
Text comprehension instruction. It shows the effective comprehension strategies for teacher : Explanation, thinking aloud, guided practice, application, and for students : Asking questions about the text they are reading; summarizing parts of the text; clarifying words and sentences they don’t understand; and predicting what might occur next in the text.
Review:
This paper concluded by key finding from the scientific research and answers the questions form. This paper made a conclusion based on huge amounts of scientific researches, this make this paper credible. In addition, questions and answering form made readers to understand the message very quickly and precisely.
This paper suggests many topics to ponder in English education for Korean students in EFS environment, where only the phonics are taught not for phonemic awareness. We can see the precise and step-by-step curriculum how to teach young children literacy. This can be one of supporting article that EFL context such as Korea should start English by reading and in the class, amount of education between speaking, listening, writing and reading should be balanced for young children .
Citation 2:
Acha, J. (2009). The effectiveness of multimedia programmes in children’s vocabulary learning. British journal of educational technology, 40(1), 23-31.
Summary:
This paper was to examine which presentation mode is more effective for primary school children who are learning new vocabulary in a second language with a self-paced multimedia programme : either presenting only one stimulus (either verbal or pictorial) or presenting two stimuli simultaneously (verbal and pictorial). Participants were 135 third and fourth grade Spanish children and they read an interactive multimedia short English story presented by a computer program. Twelve key words(donkey, drawer, penknife, hammer, bricks, ladybird, waistcoat, bonnet, mittens, jug, tray and napkin) were inside the button. These words were unknown to the children by pretest and author tested the vocabulary after the children read the story with the multimedia programme. In this multimedia, children click the button on unknown words while reading. There were three groups that could see the corresponding annotation word-only, picture-only, both word and picture. An ANCOVA was used to analysis the research. The ‘word-only’ group shows higher percentage of recalled words than the ‘word and picture’ group, both in the immediate and the delayed posttest.
Generally, we think that combined use of a word and a picture may reinforce the memory trace in children, but this paper revealed different concept. The present data strongly suggest that adding the picture to the word involves extra cognitive resources. For that reason, in a second language vocabulary learning multimedia program for children, presenting only a word is more effective than presenting the word together with the picture or only the picture.
Yet, this paper cited other studies that when high-order processes are involved , integration of information, pictures have been useful to interpret text and construct deep understanding.
Review:
To developing materials it is important to understand the particular context and the particular course. Teachers nowadays have to recognize the digital context that postmodern students are related. The new possibilities of e-learning with hypermedia formats and the individualization of the learning process calls for integrated educational and techno-logical research as a means to assure effective learning results. This paper assist to teachers how to use digital sources and to curriculum developer how to develop the digital materials in terms of learning language.
Author claims that simultaneous presentation of verbal and pictorial stimuli has not always proved to be useful in self-based learning, probably because of limited working-memory capacity for a detailed description of working memory. This paper could change the teaching vocabulary pedagogy in Korea.
Citation 3:
Richard, R.D. (1993). The Writing Activities for Extensive Reading. New ways in teaching reading, 51(4), 188-189.
Summary:
In extensive reading, students select their own books and read a great deal at their own pace. They are encouraged to read easy and interesting books and to stop reading a book if it is too hard, too easy, or boring. Generally, students do not answer comprehension questions on the books they have read. When students have finished reading a book, the author does not give them comprehension questions or test them on what they have read. Rather the author uses activities that allow them to draw on their reading to help them with other aspects of English, such as increasing their vocabulary knowledge or improving their oral fluency.
Many teachers of English, in both second and foreign language contexts, are familiar with the activity called free writing. The purpose of free writing is to help students get started, to generate ideas, often considered one of the most difficult steps in writing. Generally, the teacher does not correct or evaluate free writing. Here are the instructions that the author gives to his students for timed repeated thinking and writing:
1. For one minute, think about a book that you have read.
2. Now write about the book for two minutes.
3. Stop. For two minutes, read what you wrote and think again about the story.
4. Now write again for two minutes. Start over from the beginning. (Do not continue from what your wrote in step 2.)
5. Repeat step 3.
6. Repeat step 4.
Teachers of English might also be familiar with timed repeated reading, an activity that helps learners improve their reading fluency. Students are instructed to read a text at a comfortable pace for overall understanding for a set period of time, often one or two minutes. At the end of the time, they stop, making the last word they read. They go back to the beginning of the text, read again for the same period of time, stop, and mark the last word. The process is repeated a third time. Most often, learners read more the second and third times than they did the first time.
Timed repeated skimming and writing combines timed repeated reading with timed repeated writing. Instead of reading at a comfortable pace for overall understanding, students skim their books. Then they write about their books for a given period of time. The goals are to improve the skill of skimming, to help students with getting started in the writing process, and to help students become more fluent writers.
Review:
The author is a strong supporter of extensive reading. Good things happen when EFL students read extensively. Studies show that they not only become fluent readers, but they also learn new words and expand their understanding of words they knew before. In addition, they write better, and their listening and speaking abilities improve. Extensive reading activities such as the two described in this article make student reading a resource for language practice in reading, vocabulary learning, listening, speaking, and writing.
Citation 4:
Bock, R. (1995). Why Children Succeed or Fail at Reading. NICHD's program in learning disabilities, 10, 120-126.
Summary:
Most children will learn to read, no matter what method is used to teach them. But unless they receive special help, at least 20 percent of them cannot master this simple task that the rest of us take for granted. Their difficulty is painfully obvious when they try to read out loud. Children with reading difficulties stop and start frequently, mispronouncing some words and skipping others entirely. The first casualty is self esteem: they soon grow ashamed as they struggle with a skill their classmates master easily. In the later grades, when children switch from learning to read to reading to learn, reading-impaired children are kept from exploring science, history, literature, mathematics and the wealth of information that is presented in print. In America, about 10 million children have difficulties learning to read. From 10 to 15 percent eventually drop out of high school; only 2 percent complete a four-year college program.
The words we speak are made up of individual pieces of sound that scientists refer to as phonemes. The word “bag,” for example, has three phonemes. The problem arises in converting the natural process to print. NICHD studies have found that at least 20 percent of children must be taught English letter-sound system directly in order to learn to read successfully. The greatest possibility for success lies in identifying and treating these children before they reach third grade.
Instructors, usually working in small groups, can explicitly show children that words are made up of tiny sound segments. There are many ways to impart this knowledge. One way is to have children clap in sequence as each speech sound in a word is slowly pronounced. Other methods may involve having children move a small plastic tab or other marker as each sound is made. After the students master this step, instructors can teach them that the letters in words stand for the tiny sounds in speech. This teaching technique, commonly referred to as “phonics” instruction, is usually again introduced slowly at first, perhaps in combination with putting plastic markers beneath letters on a page in sequence with each letter the student “sounds out”. After this phase of instruction is completed, and when children can read the words on the page in an accurate and rapid manner, the student can then be exposed to teaching methods that emphasize immersing children in good literature.
Review:
Early results of other studies suggest that key areas of the brains of people with reading disabilities function differently than in people who read easily. NICHD-funded scientists are also taking advantage of powerful new technologies that allow them to observe the inner workings of the brain. One such method, functional magnetic resonance imaging, uses a computer-directed, magnetic device to obtain brain images. Using this technique, researchers are comparing the brain function of people with reading disabilities to the brain functioning of skilled readers. It is hoped that the technique will allow them to observe the changes that that take place in the brain as individuals learn to overcome their reading impairment. These research projects may one day provide the basis for effective new treatments for reading disabilities.
Citation 5 :
Sun, G.Y. (2000). A Case Study of Communicative Language Teaching in China. TESL Canada, 3(1), 67-86.
Summary:
This paper discusses the implementation of communicative language teaching (CLT) methodology within the English as a foreign language (EFL) context in the Peoples’ Republic of China. It suggests investigating the context of an English language teaching program first, and then adapting the program to the Chinese context in order to more effectively implement the communicative methodology. Key questions regarding curriculum design are used as a case study of an EFL context in China. It is concluded that there must be a compromise between CLT methodology and the EFL context, because CLT is at root a curriculum development. Three principles are judged to be helpful in understanding this problem: (1) in EFL teaching, the impact from the context on a program is more significant than in the English as a second language (ESL) context. The more that is known about the context, the better the new methodology can be adapted into the program: (2) Introducing methods of classroom activities is helpful, but not sufficient; adaptation should start from the beginning of the curriculum design; and (3) Adaptation of teaching methodology will be more successful if the theory of learning and teaching where CLT methodology is derived from is reviewed and studied with the characteristics of the program context in mind.
Review:
In this paper, a preliminary stage of context assessment of curriculum design in an EFL context in China is suggested. A framework of context is provided for developing a communicative language teaching program in China. In trying to integrating context into curriculum, three fundamental questions are raised and discussed. The situation and practice of adapting communicative language teaching methodology in Private Pui Ching Commercial College is discussed as a case study. There has to be compromise between CLT methodology and the conditions and provisions of the context in which it is to be implemented. The adaption of CLT in the EFL context is first of all a curriculum development.
The problems around the adaptation of communicative language teaching methodology in China are only partly addressed. They believe the following principles will be helpful in understanding this problem:
1. In EFL teaching, the impact from the context on a program is more significant than that in an ESL context. The more they know about the context the better we can adapt this new methodology into the program.
2. Introducing methods of classroom activities is helpful, but not sufficient. The adaptation should start from the beginning of the curriculum design. Conditions of the context should be taken into account throughout the whole process of program development.
3. Adaptation of teaching methodology will be more successful if the theory of learning and teaching where CLT methodology is derived from is reviewed and studied with the characteristics of the program context in mind.
Citation 6 :
Chard, D. J., & Osborn, J. (1999). Phonics and recognition instruction in early reading program: Guidelines for accessibility. Learning disabilities research and practice, 14(2), 107-117.
Summary:
A study investigated school and classroom factors related to primary-grade reading achievement, using quantitative and descriptive methods. Fourteen schools across the United States with moderate to high numbers of students on subsidized lunch were identified as most, moderately, or least effective based on several measures of reading achievement. A combination of school and teacher factors was found to be important in the most effective schools. Significant factors included: (1) strong links to parents; (2) systematic assessment of pupil progress; (3) strong building communication; (4) a collaborative model for reading instruction, including early reading interventions; (5) time spent in small group instruction; (6) time spent in independent reading; (7) high pupil engagement; and (8) strong home communication. The most accomplished teachers were frequently observed teaching word recognition by coaching as children were reading, providing explicit phonics instruction, and asking higher level questions after reading. In all of the most effective schools, reading was clearly a priority at both the building and classroom levels.
Review:
In this paper, the most interesting part is that the author considers family background and reading performance. Also the author outlines a non-categorical approach to reading disability, describes the reading intervention program they have developed for older low-progress readers and seeks to demonstrate how students from socially disadvantaged backgrounds can, and do, make substantial progress when offered effective reading instruction based on the available scientific research evidence.
